Myth or Reality? An Ethnographic Exploration in Togo, West Africa

Presented at 5th African Population Conference

Arusha, Tanzania (December 2007)

Virgile Capo-Chichi, Regional Researcher for West & Central Africa, Population Services International

Sethson Kassegné, Research Director. Population Services International - Togo.

Introduction

§ Same-sex relations are denied in most African countries even though studies have found cultural and traditional practices that demonstrate their existence for centuries (Roscoe & Murray, 1998).

§ Compared to other regions, Africa has the lowest levels of awareness and communication with regards to male-to-male sex (McKenna, 1996) and the most repressive laws against it.

§ Men-who-have-sex-with-men (MSM) are particularly vulnerable to HIV infection as demonstrated by studies in many settings (UNAIDS, 2000).

§ Except in South Africa, little is known about how male-to-male sexual activity takes place in sub-Saharan Africa.

Study Objectives

§ Explore current practices as well as historical and cultural perspectives relative to male-to-male sex and homosexuality in Togo, West Africa.

§ Understand the sexual behavior of MSM

§ Identify factors related to HIV preventive behaviour among MSM

Background: Togo

§ Small West African country bordered by Republic of Benin (East), Ghana (West), Burkina Faso (North) & Atlantic Ocean (South).

§ Total land area = 56,600 km²

§ Population = ~ 5.3 million

§ Life expectancy = 55 years (UNDP, 2006)

§ Ranked 147 in Human Development Index (United Nations, 2006)

§ HIV prevalence ~ 3.2% among general population (UNAIDS

2006)

Data & Methods

§ Study conducted in two phases using gate-keeper interviews and an adapted peer ethnographic (PEER) approach (Price and Hawkins 2001).

§ The study was conducted in four communities in Togo: Lomé, Aneho, Sokode & Kara

Phase 1: Exploratory phase with gatekeepers in each study community

§ 20 MSM identified through members of various NGOs working in HIV

prevention (first wave of participants)

§ Focus group discussion (FGD) conducted by the study team with the first wave of participants

§ Individual interviews with those 20 MSM using open – ended questions

§ Training of those 20 MSM

Phase 2: Discussions with MSM

§ 102 additional participants identified by the 20 initial MSMs through snowballing and peer networking (second wave of participants)

§ Individual interviews conducted by peer interviewers with the second wave of participants

§ With all study respondents, a survey of knowledge and behavior regarding STIs and HIV/AIDS was also administered

§ Data were collected using local languages (Mina in the south and Kabyè in the north).

§ The data were audio – recorded and later transcribed

§ Data analysis using qualitative data analysis software The Ethnograph™

Results:

Lack of agreement among gatekeepers about the existence or history of male-to-male sex in their communities

§ Some gatekeepers strongly deny the existence of male-to-male sex and homosexuality in their communities. Even some local journalists believe that the “phenomenon” must have been imported from the west.

“…homosexuality as it exists nowadays is unknown to traditional African societies. There was no man-to–man sex… In contrast, traditional chiefs of priests in the process of their enthronization were known to have lived in isolation and therefore participated in ‘recurrent’ masturbation to satisfy their sexual desires. This is what was perceived as homosexuality.”

(gatekeeper, Kara)

§ Other gatekeepers believe that same sex relations and homosexuality have always existed in traditional societies in Togo

“…tendencies towards homosexual behavior have always existed among men as well as women. It is more pronounced among men and that’s why they were called ‘nyonu – sunu’ (man – woman); that is, a man living as a woman. Or, alternatively, ‘sunu nyonu’ (woman-man) because they tend to behave like a person of the opposite sex.” (Gatekeeper, Aneho)

§ Homosexuality is also believed to be linked to some magical and mystical practices used to acquire power and test the validity of amulets and “charms”.

“Becoming homosexual” in Togo

§ Some FGD participants described their experience as a “natural” progression from childhood sexual play to a homosexual identity realised in adulthood.

“If a boy who is used to bathing and sleeping in the same bed as his boyhood peers from the time he is young, when he grows into adolescence he would want to do the same. As an adult he will realise that he is attracted by other males.” (participant focus group # 1)

“… Homosexuality has never come from somewhere else… from your childhood. What you do and your habits show that you will become homosexual. One is born with it. It is not acquired.” (participant focus group # 2).

§ Other FGD participants believe that a tendency toward male-to-male sex can be acquired from forced or agreed sexual relations with another man, or social pressure.

“You become homosexual out of necessity…because you want to behave just as your friend.” (participant, focus group # 1)

“Some people are attracted by other homosexuals. When they (homosexuals) are attracted to a heterosexual, they will do everything (they can) to take make him a part of their group. If it pleases him, then he will stay.” (participants, focus group # 1)

§ Most participants agreed that men who are innately attracted to other men remain homosexual for life. Those who have “become homosexual” may change their preferences toward men or women during the course of their life.

Lifestyles and community perceptions

§ Self-identification for the 122 MSM that participated in this study was as follows:

o 44% active homosexual (playing a “male” role during intercourse)

o 18% passive homosexuals (playing a “female” role during intercourse)

o 26% versatile homosexual (could play either role)

o 12% bisexual (sexually active with both male and females)

§ Participants explained that MSM use coded language to identify one another. The most common local term used to refer to homosexuality is “Zangboin”. Passive homosexuals are called “Zangbointés” and active ones are called “Zangbointeurs”. The place where homosexuals have sex is called “Zangbointoir”.

There was a unanimous perception among all participants (gatekeepers and MSM) that community perceptions of homosexuality are negative. This results in discriminatory

behaviours against homosexuals, such as insults and sometimes beatings.

Social organisation

§ Social networking is used as a survival mechanism for MSM in Togo. Networking serves to create solidarity among men. Network members have specific places to meet, discuss and exchange their views.

§ According to participants, social networks can be formal or informal. Formal networks are considered as true institutions with clear rules and group leaders.

“A group needs clear rules to function…before you accept someone into your group, you must make sure he will be able to comply to those rules.” (participant focus group # 2).

HIV and STI awareness

§ 75% of MSM could identify at least one STI; 71% cited gonorrhoea and 49% cited syphilis.

§ Correct knowledge about symptoms of STIs was low (less than 20%).

§ 90% of MSM are aware of HIV/AIDS, but only 40% cited unprotected sex as a source of infection.

§ The vast majority of MSM (81%) who cited sexual transmission as a source of infection believe that transmission only occurs during sex with a woman and therefore do not feel vulnerable to HIV infection when having sex with men.

§ Approximately 60% of MSM cited fidelity as the only means for avoiding HIV

infection

Sexual behaviour

§ Age at first male-to-male sex ranged from 9 to 20 years with a mean of 17.6 years

§ First male partner was

o a friend: 65%

o a family relative (uncle, cousin, brother or other family member): 19%

§ Approximately 48% reporting having had intercourse with women prior to their

first sexual intercourse with a man

§ Reported numbers of current male sexual partners was:

o None: 18%

o 1: 50%

o 2 or more: 32%

§ 30% of respondents reported having concurrent male partners

Condom use

§ Approximately 32% of MSM reported using a condom during their first sexual

intercourse with a man

§ 60% reported condom use during their last sexual intercourse with a man

§ 21% reported consistently using condoms with male partners

§ Reasons for non-use of condoms included:

o Trust in partner

o Condoms not available

o Lack of pleasure while using condoms

o Partner’s refusal

o Negative beliefs about condoms

Implications

§ This study demonstrates that male-to-male sexual activity occurs in Togo and that many MSM self-identify as homosexual

§ Sexual practices among MSM put them at increased risk for HIV infection

§ There is urgency in addressing the needs of MSM in Togo, including:

o Improving awareness about STIs and HIV transmission during male-to male sex

o Promoting MSM-friendly services to improve access to condoms and VCT services

§ Using existing social networks among MSM to disseminate messages and recruit

peer educators

You can read this in full here.

For more interesting reading, click on The Politics of Homosexuality in Africa.

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Tessmann, G. (Gunther), b. 1884. "Die Homosexualität bei den Negern Kameruns," Jarbuch für sexuelle Zwischenstufen 21 (1921) pp. 121-138 (=HRAF FH9 FANG 2:TESSMANN).

Trezenem. HRAF FH9 FANG 3:TREZENEM.

Tripp, C. A. The Homosexual Matrix (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1975) ix, 314 p.; 24 cm. Includes index. Bibliography: p. (292)-304. LC:HQ 76 T75 ISBN:0070652015. 2nd Ed. 1987 ISBN:0452008476 (pbk.)

Turnbull, Colin M. The Forest People. (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday & Co., 1962, c1961). xii, 305 p., (7) leaves of plates : ill., maps ; 19 cm. LC:DT 650 B36 T87 1962.

Turnbull, Colin M. The Lonely African. (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1968, c1962). LC:DT 647 T8 1968. 251 p. illus. 22 cm.

Turnbull, Colin M. The Mountain People. (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1972) 309 p. photos. 22 cm. LC:DT 434 U2 T82. ISBN:671213202.

Uchendu, Victor Chikezie. The Igbo of Southeast Nigeria. (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965) xiii, 111 p. illus., map, port. 24 cm. Includes bibliographies. DD:309.9669 UC4I

Ware, Caroline Farrar (1899- ). Greenwich Village 1920-1930. DD:309.97471 W22G 1965.

Westermark, Edward (1862-1939). The Origin and Development of Moral Ideas. (London: Macmillan, 1906).

Williams, F.E., Papuans of the Trans-Fly. (Oxford: Clarendon, 1936).

Williams, Walter L. (1948- ). The Spirit and the Flesh: Sexual Diversity in American Indian Culture. (Boston: Beacon Press, c1986) xi, 344 p., (8) p. of plates: ill.; 24 cm. Includes index. Bibliography: p. 317-333. LC:E 98 S48 W55 1986. ISBN: 0807046027.

Wilson, Monica Hunter. Good Company: A Study of Nyakyusa Age-Villages. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1963) 278 p., (17) p. of plates: ill., maps; 21 cm. Includes index. Bibliography: p. (275)-276. DD:572.9678 W695G. (=HRAF FN17 NGONDE 1:WILSON.)

All of this material has been obtained from the website of one of my favourite authors to be found here and here.

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A brief cross-cultural survey 2

Female-Female Relationships
Azande, C Africa. (Evans-Pritchard (1970) pp. 1428-34.)	Lesbianism is widely practiced and is the subject of much folklore. Lesbianism is thought to be a form of witchcraft fatal to any male who witnesses it, and therefore theoretically punishable by death (as treason) if practiced by the King's wives. In practice sanctions are less severe or ignored.
Bantu speakers of Africa. (O'Brien.)	Female-female marriage is very widespread.
Dahomey, to recent times, Benin.	Passing mention of female homosexuality within a more thorough description of male homosexual traditions of the serial bisexual kind. Dahomey was regarded as a land of amazons by Europeans, but evidently this had little to do with lesbianism and everything to do with Dahomey being ruled by a queen at the time of the first European contact. Something of European attitudes is revealed in that Englishmen, having been ruled by the Tudor queens, would assume that a black nation ruled by a queen was necessarily amazon.
France, early 20th century. (de Beauvior.)	Description of a lesbian student community at Sävres. Although the author's answers do not reveal a particularly advanced view of lesbianism, she has a knack for asking the right questions.
Gisu (Masaba), W slope of Mt. Elgon, 1953-1955. (La Fontaine. pp. 34, 60-61.)	A woman reported living in the male role.
Ibo, SE Nigeria, 1930-1950. (Uchendu. pp. 7 & 50, and note 4, p. 7.)	Female-female marriage is recognised. Informant's mother had several wives, but he denies a sexual component of these marriages.
KiMbundu, Angola. (Hambly. p. 81.)	Women make artificial penises to use with other women (according to a male informant).
Nandi, Kenya. (Huntingford. pp. 16, 19.)	A female witch who has a female husband.
Mombasa (Strobel. p. 133 and note 33.)	Women's dance associations provide access to lesbian networks and cover for lesbian assignation (or so some male husbands suspect).
Nama, Kalihari desert, S Africa, 1930. (HRAF FX13 HOTTENTOT 2:SCHAPERA E-4,5 1930.)	Lesbianism common, especially between young married women. Lesbian relationships may be sealed by "water-sisterhood" ritual called soregus. This bond may be contracted between any two individuals and does not necessarily imply a romantic or sexual relation, although it often includes such elements. The soregus partner may not be refused anything, including sexual favors, and this obligation supersedes prohibitions against adultery. The usual lesbian sexual practice is mutual masturbation. Male-male practices are remarkably symmetrical.
Nkundó, Africa, 1938. (HRAF FO32 MONGO 2:HUSTAERT 87 M-5 1938.)	Nkundó play "husband and wife" and the game is played even by adult married women. The term for the act involved is ya¡kya bons ngo based on the verb ya¡kya, to press against. Nothing wrong is seen in the practice.
Nuer (Zulu), South Africa. (Gluckman. p. 184. Evans-Pritchard. (1950) p. 390.)	Zulu women can take wives and the children of this union (via a male perhaps from a different community) belong to the line of the female husband.
Nupe, Nigeria. (Nadel: 1942, p.152).	Homosexuality said to occur among women but not men. For this reason, the natives say, women are more complete.
Plateau Tonga, N. Zimbabwe, circa 1960 ? (Smith and Dale. v. I, p. 373; v. II, p. 74.)	Women make dildos of leather and wood, but whether for use with other women or for solitary use is not specified.

A brief cross-cultural survey 1

Name, Place, Time (Principal sources)	Remarks
Cultures with Male Serial Bisexuality
Azande, C Africa, to circa 1900. (Evans-Pritchard: 1970)	Male-male marriages are recognised between soldiers and recruits. Marriages are dissolved when recruits become soldiers and themselves take young male-wives. Men, once they were married to women, were expected to prefer heterosexual relations, but throughout life homosexuality was considered a sensible alternative when heterosexual relations were impossible, inconvenient, or as they often were, taboo. The usual form of relations was intercourse between the thighs. Azande knew some men preferred homosexual relations, and such was said to be the case with certain chiefs and military leaders. Male-male marriage was forbidden by European missionaries, but homosexual activities persisted in other forms without sanction.
Dahomey, Benin W Africa, 1931. (Herskovits. v. I, pp. 239-242, 288-289.)	Typical example of male serial bisexuality in that homosexual relations among young males and young men are tolerated in a period of sexual segregation, whereas homosexuality between married adult males is strongly condemned. However among the Dahomey adult homosexual relations between those who were lovers in youth may have been concealed in a tradition of "best friendships."
Fang, W Africa, circa 1905. (HRAF FH9 FANG 2:TESSMANN 23 E-2 (1904-1909) 1913)	Young men are generally bisexual and no significance attaches to the roles they assume in their homosexual relations. Fang tolerate, but do not approve of youthful homosexual relations. Homosexual relations between men of marriageable age is supposed to be taboo. However, homosexual intercourse is supposed to be a wealth-producing medicine which benefits the partner in the inserter role, although invoking this medicine is supposed to entail a risk of disease. Adult men found in homosexual relations claim not to be homosexual, but only to be practicing the wealth-producing medicine.
Great Britain,to present.	Childhood sex play is not tolerated by the English. However at a young age young males of high-status families are sent to sexually segregated compounds called "public schools." Younger young males act as pages, called "fags," to the older young males. Younger young males are often cast in the insertee role in homosexual relations. Additionally, many male-male romances have been reported, although some of these may not have been consummated. In adulthood men are supposed to be completely heterosexual and to resent any allusion to their youthful homosexual relationships. Yet relationships formed in the public schools retain some importance throughout life and this is known as "the old school tie."
Greek, circa 500 BC (Dover.)	Homosexuality in the social approved form consisted of intercourse between the thighs in which the inserter was a mature man who sought the relation with a young man. The youth was supposed to be indifferent to the sexual aspects of the relationship and he was not supposed to derive sexual pleasure from the relationship. The youth was supposed to benefit from the patronage of the older man. Anal intercourse was known and was not forbidden, but citizens were not supposed to prostitute themselves in the insertee role.
Houston, Texas, circa 1960. (Fictionalized account by native informant: Eighner [1985] See also: Reiss.)	Childhood sex play is not tolerated. From puberty to about age 16, some young males may engage in a practice they call "queer rolling." The stated purpose of this activity is to attract and then rob older homosexual males, but in fact this never actually occurred to the knowledge of the informant. The young males were fellated by the older males and sometimes accepted money for this activity. The plan of robbery served only as an excuse for violating strict taboos on all forms of male homosexuality. Among the initiates, young males admitted deriving pleasure from the men and often said the "faggots" (adult fellators) performed oral sex better than women. Boys would admit to agreeing to meet men again. Cash payments, if any, were token amounts, although sometimes exaggerated by the young males. Sexual contact between the young males was taboo, although group masturbation was not unheard of. Signs of affection between the men and the young males were strictly taboo.
Ik (pseudonym), Kidepo Valley, Uganda, near Sudan-Kenya border, 1964-1967. (Turnbull, p. 254. Better explained: Tripp, p. 68.)	Young men may masturbate each other, even in public, provided they do not exchange signs of affection. Turnbull ascribes the lack of affection to the famine the Ik are enduring, but in fact, this is one of the requirements of the native form.
Japan, from at least 1500s to circa 1865. (Childs.)	Intergenerational love common among monks and in the military. In the former case men were supposedly homosexual or celibate through their lives. Adult samurai might be bisexual.
Kaluli, Papua, 1976 (Schieffelin. pp. 124-126.)	Like the Keraki. Monogamous relationship between an initiate and his sponsor is noted.
Keraki, Papua, 1936 (Williams, F.E.)	Sodomy to imbue initiates with masculine characteristics. Similar to fellatio among the Sambians.
Mohave, SW United States, to present. (Devereux. Williams, W.L. pp. 89-90, 96-98, and passim.)	Very general bisexuality thought unremarkable from early childhood to early 20s. Virtually all forms of homosexual relations occur. Men are expected to become heterosexual and to marry women, but adult males may marry or have sexual relations with berdaches who are men in a nonmasculine role, and this is not considered homosexual. Mohave berdaches tend to have insisted on assuming the insertee role in homosexual relations.
Moslem cultures of Asia minor, N and E Africa. (Edwardes. Cline.)	Intergenrational male sex tends to be the rule and after heterosexual marriage men continue to have homosexual affairs throughout life. In some societies, men brag as openly about their homosexual affairs as about their heterosexual ones. Although homosexuality is forbidden by the Koran and the death penalty is prescribed, rigid segregation of the sexes may encourage homosexual practices among parts of the male population who might not otherwise participate.
Mossi, C Africa, Tauxier pp. 569-70 in the French; HRAF FA28 MOSSI 6:TAUXIER, 106.	Soroné are cross-dressing pages, young males [at certain young ages] who are concubines of important men from village dignitaries to the paramount chief. When they come of age they assume masculine roles and marry women given to them by their patron. The first born children of these unions become soroné or wives of soroné.
Nama aka Hottentots, SW Africa. (HRAF FX13 HOTTENTOT 2:SCHAPERA E-4 1930, pp. 322, 242-243.)	Although homosexuality is well accepted throughout life, young males form especially intense relationships sealed by soregus (water sharing), a bond in some respects more sacred than marriage. Mutual masturbation is said to be the most common form of homosexual relations, but anal intercourse is not unknown.
Nashville, Tennesee, 1958 (Reiss.)	Adolescent males who define themselves neither as career prostitutes nor as homosexuals offer themselves to be fellated for money by (usually) older males who are identified as homosexual provided this activity can be excused as a money-making enterprise, the youth are never cast in a feminine role (at least not in view of their peers), and affection is not overtly expressed by either party. Norms of the relationship of the youth to the older males are enforced with the threat of violence. The youth eventually pursue adult careers and cease this activity.
Nkundo, C Zaire, circa 1930. (HRAF FO32 MONGO 2:HULSTAERT M-5 1938, p. 86.)	A sketchy and homophobic report suggests a fairly typical pattern. However, it is reported that in the past the younger partner took the inserter role in anal intercourse, which is unusual.
Nyakyusa, N shore of Lake Malawi aka Lake Nyasa, SE Africa, circa 1936. (Wilson. HRAF FN17 NGONDE 1:WILSON E-5 1951, 197.)	During the homosexual period no role divisions appear among the young males and young men. Younger young males and young men exchange roles freely in anal intercourse and intercourse between the thighs. Mutual masturbation is popular. Oral sex is taboo. Boys establish villages, often laid out to reflect their relationships. Eventually the young men marry and their wives move into the village. Homosexuality involving married males is considered witchcraft and is punishable by a cattle fine. Enough cases come to light to suggest that a number of men persist in homosexual relations beyond the prescribed period.
Sambia (pseudonym), New Guinea highlands, 1974-1976 (also 1938). (Herdt.)	95%+ of young men fellate older males, but only during daily secret rituals. The beginning of the fellating period is 7-10 years of age; fellated period begins at puberty and continues until about age 25. Males in this period must avoid all contact with females. Fellators do not assume the roles of women. There is a strongly marked sexual antagonism, "misogyny." Initiates are segregated in men's house, but homosexual relations do not occur there. Young children may play together freely regardless of sex. 5% or less of married males continue to be fellated, but this is socially disapproved. Married men as fellators of youths are strongly condemned, although this is known to occur occasionally.
WaTutsi (dominant ethnic caste of traditional Ruanda), C Africa, mid-20th century. (Maquet.)	Homosexuality described as "general" in the Tutsi and Hutu castes, especially among young men at court. Men of marriageable age were expected to become exclusively heterosexual, but blood brother relationships and cross-caste patronage relationships may have served as cover for adult homosexual relationships.
Zulu, S Africa, to 1897. (Morris. pp. 35-36, 46, 51-52, 54, 66, 107-108, 117, 279-281, 287-288, 587.)	In martial traditions similar to the Azande. Contrary to events depicted in a popular motion picture, Shaka was avidly homosexual and some of his political decisions were said to have been made to extend his enjoyment of barracks homosexuality.

No 'Nobel' for African Leaders

When Sudanese-born billionaire Mo Ibrahim announced an annual $5 million prize to reward Africa's best leaders, he warned that there would be years when "we wouldn't award the prize." Just three years on, and despite considering "some credible candidates," the prize committee said on Monday that no prize would be awarded in 2009. In announcing the decision, committee member and former Botswana President Ketumile Masire said the panel "noted the progress made with governance in some African countries, while noticing with concern recent setbacks in other countries."

The non-award is, of course, a powerful indictment of Africa's still patchy governance and the continent's most recently retired leaders. The Ibrahim Prize for Achievement in African Leadership considers democratically elected former heads of state or government who have left office in the last three years. The prize is worth $5 million over 10 years and $200,000 a year for life thereafter. By making the reward so big — it is the largest annually awarded prize in the world — Ibrahim has said he wanted to create something to encourage African leaders to do good while in power, in part because they might be rewarded in retirement.

(Simon Robinson, senior editor Europe writes in TIME magazine. Click to read more..)